Civil Rights and Cold War Diplomacy
The Impact of Segregation on American Foreign Policy
During the Cold War, the United States faced a challenge in balancing its commitment to democracy and equality with the realities of racial segregation at home. The presence of segregation and discrimination against Black Americans, including diplomats from African nations, undermined America’s image on the world stage and provided ammunition for Soviet propaganda.
The Special Protocol Service Section
In response to the growing number of incidents involving discrimination against diplomats, the State Department created the Special Protocol Service Section (SPSS) in 1961. Led by Pedro Sanjuan, the SPSS aimed to address the two most pressing issues facing foreign visitors: finding housing in Washington, D.C., and traveling safely on roads connecting the capital to the United Nations in New York.
The African Independence Movement and U.S. Civil Rights Policies
The African independence movement, which saw 17 African nations declare independence from colonial rule in 1960, had a significant impact on U.S. civil rights policies. As these nations established diplomatic missions in Washington, their representatives witnessed firsthand the racism directed at Black Americans. These experiences fueled calls for comprehensive civil rights reform in the United States.
Challenges Faced by African Diplomats
African diplomats faced numerous challenges in navigating American racial prejudice. They were often denied service at restaurants, hotels, and other public accommodations. They were also subjected to verbal and physical abuse. These incidents not only humiliated the diplomats but also damaged America’s reputation abroad.
The Use of Cold War Rhetoric
To justify efforts to end discrimination in the United States, the Kennedy administration invoked Cold War rhetoric. They argued that the Soviet Union was exploiting segregation to undermine America’s credibility and influence among newly independent nations. This strategy helped build public support for civil rights legislation and pressured businesses and local governments to comply with anti-discrimination laws.
Efforts to Address Discrimination
The SPSS used a variety of tactics to address discrimination against diplomats. They negotiated with business owners, appealed to the patriotism of Maryland legislators, and generated media attention to highlight the issue. They also worked with civil rights organizations like CORE to conduct Freedom Rides along Route 40, which tested the willingness of restaurants to comply with desegregation laws.
The Road to the Civil Rights Act
Despite these efforts, it became clear that tailored, one-off solutions to discrimination against diplomats could not mitigate segregation in American society. The Kennedy administration realized that comprehensive legislation was needed to address the root causes of racial inequality.
The Civil Rights Act of 1964
In 1964, Congress passed the Civil Rights Act, a landmark piece of legislation that outlawed racial segregation in public accommodations. This law built upon the efforts of the SPSS and other civil rights organizations to end discrimination against African diplomats and all Americans.
Legacy and Impact
The Civil Rights Movement and the Cold War played intertwined roles in shaping U.S. foreign policy and domestic race relations. The challenges faced by African diplomats helped raise awareness of the pervasive nature of discrimination in the United States and contributed to the passage of landmark civil rights legislation.