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Archaeology

New Dating Method Reveals Vikings Occupied Newfoundland in 1021 C.E.

by Rosa
written by Rosa

Viking Settlement in Newfoundland: New Dating Method Reveals Exact Year

New Dating Method

Researchers have developed an innovative dating method using tree rings to pinpoint the exact year that Vikings occupied Newfoundland. By examining growth rings for a rare cosmic-ray event that occurred in 993 C.E., scientists were able to determine that the Norse settlement at L’Anse aux Meadows was established in 1021 C.E.

Evidence from Wood Artifacts

The dating method was applied to three wooden artifacts found at L’Anse aux Meadows: a piece of fir, a piece of juniper, and a discarded section of a tree stump. These artifacts showed clear markings of being cut and shaped with metal tools, indicating that they were produced by Vikings.

Tree Ring Analysis

Dendrochronological archives from around the world contain evidence of the 993 cosmic-ray event, which caused a spike in atmospheric carbon levels. By identifying this spike in the tree rings of the Viking artifacts, researchers were able to count the growth rings and determine the exact year the trees were felled: 1021 C.E.

Confirmation from Norse Sagas

The new dating method aligns well with the accounts of Viking voyages to Vinland (North America) recorded in the Icelandic sagas. The sagas describe Norse explorers establishing base camps in Vinland, including one that is believed to have been located at L’Anse aux Meadows.

Implications for Viking History

The precise date of the Viking settlement at L’Anse aux Meadows has implications for our understanding of Norse exploration and colonization. It suggests that the Vikings may have occupied Newfoundland for a longer period than previously thought, and that they may have made more frequent journeys between Greenland and Vinland.

Viking Exploration and Voyaging

The Vikings were skilled seafarers who traveled widely from Scandinavia to the British Isles, Iceland, and eventually across the Atlantic. They were also known for their raids and trading expeditions, and they established settlements in various parts of the world.

Future Applications of the Dating Method

The new dating method using cosmic-ray events has the potential to revolutionize archaeological research. By examining tree rings and other wooden artifacts, scientists can now pinpoint the exact year of events that occurred centuries or even millennia ago. This method is expected to be employed at archaeological sites far and wide.

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The Aztec Cannibalism and Spanish Retaliation at Tecoaque: A History of Violence and Trauma

by Peter
written by Peter

Aztec Cannibalism and Spanish Retaliation

Background

In the early 16th century, the Aztec civilization dominated central Mexico. Their empire was known for its advanced culture and complex religious practices, which included human sacrifice. In 1519, Spanish conquistadors led by Hernán Cortés arrived in Mexico, seeking to conquer the Aztec empire.

Aztec Cannibalism

In 1520, Aztecs captured and cannibalized a convoy of Spaniards and their Indigenous allies in the town of Zultépec-Tecoaque. The name Tecoaque translates to “the place where they ate them” in the Aztec language of Nahuatl.

Spanish Retaliation

The Spanish conquistadors were horrified by the cannibalism and vowed revenge. In early 1521, Spanish forces under the command of Gonzalo de Sandoval massacred Aztec women and children in Tecoaque.

Archaeological Evidence

Archaeologists from Mexico’s National Institute of Anthropology and History (INAH) have uncovered the remains of the victims of the massacre. The remains show signs of mutilation, decapitation, and burning.

Significance of Women in Aztec Warfare and Sacrifice

Bone analysis reveals that many of the female victims were pregnant, suggesting that they may have been considered “warriors” by the Aztecs. Pregnant women were often sacrificed in Aztec rituals as a way to ensure the survival of the civilization.

Impact of Spanish Conquest

The Spanish conquest of Mexico had a devastating impact on the Aztec civilization. The massacre at Tecoaque is just one example of the violence and trauma that the Aztecs endured during this period.

Historical Accounts

Spanish chroniclers, such as Bernal Díaz del Castillo, documented the atrocities committed by both the Aztecs and the Spanish during the conquest. These accounts provide valuable insights into the complex interactions between the two civilizations.

Legacy of Violence and Trauma

The violence and trauma of the Spanish conquest left a lasting legacy in Mexico. The massacre at Tecoaque is a reminder of the horrors that can occur when cultures clash and one group seeks to dominate another.

Excavation and Analysis of Remains

Archaeologists continue to excavate and analyze the remains from Tecoaque. Their work sheds light on the lives and deaths of the victims and helps us to understand the complex history of Mexico.

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Zoology

Otters: The Stone Tool-Using Marine Mammals and Their Unique Archaeological Legacy

by Rosa
written by Rosa

Otters: The Stone Tool-Using Marine Mammals

Stone Tool Usage: A Unique Archaeological Record

Otters, known for their playful nature, are also skilled tool users. They are the only marine mammals that habitually use stone tools to access their food. This behavior creates a distinctive archaeological record that can provide insights into otter behavior and the history of their populations.

Anvils and Middens: Physical Evidence of Otter Activity

When hunting for hard-shelled prey like mussels and clams, otters often use stationary rocks as anvils. They repeatedly strike the shells against these rocks, leaving behind wear patterns that indicate the direction and force of the blows. These anvils can be identified by their distinctive points and ridges, which are typically worn smooth from repeated use.

In addition to anvils, otters also create piles of shell fragments, known as middens. These middens contain shells that have been fractured in a unique way, with the two sides typically attached and a diagonal fracture running down the right side. This pattern suggests that otters may be predominantly right-handed, as they tend to twist the shells slightly before striking them on the rock with their right hand.

The Significance of Otter Tool Use

The archaeological record created by otters’ stone tool usage is significant for several reasons. First, it provides evidence of the cognitive abilities of these animals. Tool use requires planning, coordination, and dexterity, all of which indicate a high level of intelligence.

Second, otter tool use can help archaeologists distinguish between human and non-human activity in coastal areas. By understanding the unique patterns created by otters, archaeologists can better identify and interpret the archaeological record.

Third, studying otter tool use can help researchers track the distribution and abundance of these animals over time. By identifying areas where otters have historically used stone tools, researchers can gain insights into the population dynamics and habitat preferences of these endangered species.

Right-Handedness in Otters

The evidence from otter middens suggests that these animals may be predominantly right-handed. This is a rare trait among non-human species, and it raises questions about the evolutionary origins of handedness in both humans and otters.

The Role of Otters in the Marine Ecosystem

As skilled hunters and consumers of shellfish, otters play an important role in the marine ecosystem. Their ability to break open hard-shelled prey helps to control populations of these animals, which can have a cascading effect on the entire ecosystem.

Animal Archaeology: Beyond Human History

The study of otter tool use falls under the emerging field of animal archaeology, which explores the role of non-human animals in shaping the archaeological record. This field is helping to broaden our understanding of the past and the complex interactions between humans and other species.

Protecting Endangered Otters

Sea otters are currently listed as an endangered species due to population declines caused by hunting and habitat loss. Understanding otter behavior and tool use is essential for conservation efforts aimed at protecting these animals and their unique place in the marine ecosystem.

Conclusion

Otters’ use of stone tools is a fascinating example of animal intelligence and adaptation. The archaeological record created by these animals provides valuable insights into their behavior, ecology, and the history of their populations. By understanding otter tool use, we can better appreciate the diversity of the natural world and the importance of protecting these endangered species.

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History

The Catillon II Celtic Coin Hoard: A Treasure Trove of History Unearthed

by Zuzana
written by Zuzana

The Catillon II Celtic Coin Hoard: A Treasure Trove Unearthed

Discovery and Significance

In 2012, amateur metal detector enthusiasts Reg Mead and Richard Miles stumbled upon a remarkable discovery in a field on the British island of Jersey. After years of searching, they unearthed a vast hoard of Celtic coins and gold jewelry, later known as the Catillon II Hoard.

This extraordinary find, containing over 68,000 coins and numerous other artifacts, is approximately six times larger than any other Celtic hoard ever discovered. Its significance lies in its potential to shed light on the history, culture, and economy of the Celtic people who inhabited the region during the Iron Age.

Excavation and Conservation

Over the course of nearly three years, conservators at Jersey Heritage meticulously separated and cleaned the contents of the hoard. This painstaking process revealed a treasure trove of artifacts, including:

  • Celtic coins: The vast majority of the hoard consisted of silver Celtic coins, providing valuable insights into the monetary system and economic activities of the Coriosolitae, a French Celtic tribe that likely buried the hoard around 30-50 B.C.
  • Gold neck torcs: These intricate pieces of jewelry, worn around the neck or as bracelets, demonstrate the skill and artistry of Celtic metalworkers.
  • Glass beads: The presence of glass beads suggests trade connections with other regions, as glassmaking was not widely practiced among the Celts.
  • Leather purse and bag: These organic artifacts provide glimpses into the everyday life and material culture of the Coriosolitae.

Historical Context

Researchers believe that the Catillon II Hoard was buried by the Coriosolitae as they fled a Roman invasion of their territory. Julius Caesar’s conquest of Gaul, which included the area where the hoard was discovered, had a profound impact on the Celtic tribes of the region.

The hoard offers a tangible connection to this tumultuous period in history, providing insights into the political and military dynamics of the time.

Government Decision and Future Prospects

Following the separation of the hoard’s contents, the government of Jersey faced a decision: whether to keep the treasure trove on the island or allow it to be sold off. At the time of its discovery, the hoard was valued at 10 million pounds.

The decision ultimately lies with the people of Jersey, who will vote on whether to preserve this invaluable historical artifact for future generations or allow it to be dispersed into private collections.

Ongoing Research and Legacy

The Catillon II Celtic Coin Hoard continues to be a subject of ongoing research and fascination. Scholars from various disciplines are studying the coins, artifacts, and associated data to unravel the secrets of the Coriosolitae and their time.

This extraordinary discovery has not only enriched our understanding of Celtic history but has also sparked public interest in archaeology and the importance of preserving our cultural heritage. The Catillon II Hoard will undoubtedly continue to captivate and inspire generations to come.

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Archaeology

Ancient Artifacts Emerge from Melting Ice in Norway: Uncovering 5,000 Years of History

by Peter
written by Peter

Ancient Artifacts Emerge from Melting Ice in Norway

Uncovering 5,000 Years of History

As the Langfonne ice patch in Norway’s Jotunheimen Mountains continues to melt due to climate change, it is revealing a treasure trove of ancient artifacts that shed light on human activity over the past 5,000 years.

A Rich Tapestry of Reindeer Hunting

A team of researchers from the Universities of Cambridge, Oslo, and Bergen has discovered 68 arrow shafts, some with arrowheads attached, dating from the Stone Age to the medieval era. These arrows, made from materials such as bone, slate, iron, and mussel shell, provide evidence of reindeer hunting in the area for millennia. Additionally, hundreds of reindeer antlers and bones have been found on the ice, further supporting the theory that this was a prime hunting spot.

Radiocarbon Dating Unravels the Past

Radiocarbon dating has played a crucial role in determining the age of the artifacts. The oldest items, around 6,000 years old, were found near the bottom of the ice patch, while the most recent, dating back to around 1300 A.D., were found closer to the surface. This chronological distribution of artifacts provides a unique glimpse into how human activity changed as the ice patch grew or shrunk over time.

Varying Patterns of Reindeer Hunting

The researchers have observed varying patterns of reindeer hunting over the centuries. During some periods, many reindeer bones but few arrows were found, suggesting that the animals were likely killed by predators such as wolverines. In contrast, from 600 to 1300 A.D., there was a significant increase in arrow finds, while reindeer material was scarce. This period coincides with the Viking Age, when human hunters may have harvested large numbers of reindeer for their fur and antlers, which were valuable commodities.

Connections to Distant Lands

The discovery of combs made from reindeer antlers in eighth-century Denmark suggests that there was long-distance trade in reindeer-related products in Northern Europe, starting earlier than previously believed. This finding supports the idea that even remote locations were connected to the economies and societies of other parts of Europe.

A Window into the Past

The melting ice patch at Langfonne has provided a unique opportunity to study ancient human behavior and the impact of climate change on historical artifacts. The artifacts themselves, along with the data obtained from radiocarbon dating, offer valuable insights into reindeer hunting practices, trade networks, and the changing landscape of the region over the past 5,000 years.

Preserving the Past for the Future

As the ice continues to melt, researchers are racing against time to document and preserve the artifacts before they are lost forever. The melting ice patch serves as a stark reminder of the fragility of our cultural heritage and the importance of taking action to mitigate climate change. By studying these ancient artifacts, we can gain a deeper understanding of our past and ensure that future generations can appreciate the rich history that lies beneath the ice.

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Archaeology

Stone Age ‘Baby Hands’ Mystery: Unraveling the Truth Behind the Lizard Prints

by Rosa
written by Rosa

Stone Age “Baby Hands” Mystery: Lizard Prints or Human Markings?

Uncovering the Past: Reconstructing Stone Age Evidence

Reconstructing ancient history is a challenging endeavor, especially for events that occurred thousands of years ago. Researchers often rely on physical evidence to piece together the past, leading them to explore various avenues. Anthropologist Emmanuelle Honoré and her team embarked on an unusual journey that involved measuring baby hands in a hospital to shed light on a puzzling discovery.

The Cave of Mysterious Handprints

In 2002, Wadi Sûra II, a rock shelter in the Western Desert of Egypt known as “the cave of the beasts,” was discovered. The sandstone cave is adorned with enigmatic paintings and markings, including numerous outlines of human hands, some of which are at least 6,000 years old. Among these handprints, 13 appeared to be unusually small, suggesting they were made by young children.

Questioning the Origins: Baby Hands or Animal Tracks?

Upon examining the handprints, Honoré questioned whether they were indeed tracings of Stone Age babies. She collaborated with researchers to compare the cave prints with measurements of newborns and pre-term babies. The results revealed that the cave prints were not human.

Enter the Lizards: A Compelling Hypothesis

Honoré then considered other candidates, including monkeys and lizards. After further investigation, lizards emerged as the most likely source of the prints. The team found striking similarities between the cave prints and the handprints of young crocodiles and desert monitor lizards, an animal frequently depicted in other Saharan rock art.

Symbolic Significance: Lizards as Religious or Cultural Symbols

The researchers speculate that the lizard prints may have held symbolic meaning for Stone Age humans. Lizards have been revered in various cultures throughout history, often associated with fertility, protection, and other spiritual concepts. The team suggests that the lizard prints in the cave may have represented important religious or cultural symbols.

Ongoing Research and Intriguing Possibilities

While the team’s findings strongly support the theory that the handprints are lizard prints, definitive proof remains elusive. Honoré acknowledges that further research is necessary to fully unravel the mystery. The identification of reptile handprints in the cave, however, provides new insights into Stone Age art and culture.

Nature and Humans in the Stone Age Worldview

The discovery highlights the interconnectedness between humans and nature in the Stone Age. The cave paintings depict a wide array of animals, suggesting that humans were deeply aware of their surroundings and the creatures that inhabited them. The lizard prints further support this notion, indicating that lizards held a significant place in Stone Age culture.

Unveiling the Past: New Meaning and Fresh Intrigue

The identification of lizard prints in Wadi Sûra II breathes new life into the “cave of the beasts.” It unveils a hidden layer of meaning and intrigue, inviting us to contemplate the beliefs and practices of our ancient ancestors. While the mystery of the handprints may never be fully solved, the research provides valuable insights into a fascinating chapter of human history.

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Archaeology

Early Americans Mined Iron for Art, Not War: The Nasca Iron Mine Discovery

by Rosa
written by Rosa

Early Americans Mined Iron for Art, Not War

Discovery of the Nasca Iron Mine

Anthropologists have made a groundbreaking discovery in the Andes mountains of southern Peru: the earliest known iron mine in South America. This ancient mine, which dates back approximately 2000 years, was operated by the Nasca people for over 1,400 years.

Archaeological Evidence

In 2004, Dr. Kevin Vaughn of Purdue University began excavating the site, uncovering shards of pottery with distinctive colors and designs. These artifacts provided valuable clues about the age of the mine, which was later confirmed through radiocarbon dating. The pottery shards are now housed in the museum of the National Cultural Institute in Ica, Peru.

Iron Ore for Artistic Purposes

Curiously, the Nasca people did not use the iron they mined to make weapons. Instead, they utilized the hematite ore to create vibrant glazes, dyes, and paints for decorating their pottery and other objects. This discovery challenges the long-held assumption that ancient civilizations primarily used iron for warfare.

The Nasca Iron Mining Process

The Nasca iron mine was a remarkable feat of engineering for its time. Workers removed approximately 3,700 metric tons of earth by hand to access the hematite ore. The mine is located opposite a modern-day iron mine, suggesting that the Nasca people may not have exhausted the ancient vein.

The Nasca People and Iron

The Nasca people were a highly skilled and innovative civilization. Their disinclination to use iron for weapons demonstrates their unique cultural values and artistic sensibilities. The use of iron ore for artistic purposes reflects the Nasca people’s emphasis on beauty and creativity.

Significance of the Discovery

The discovery of the Nasca iron mine has important implications for our understanding of ancient American civilizations. It challenges the traditional view that iron was primarily used for warfare and reveals the diverse and creative uses of this valuable resource.

Additional Insights

  • The Nasca people’s use of iron ore for art suggests that they had a deep understanding of metallurgy and its potential applications.
  • The discovery of the iron mine provides new insights into the economic and social organization of the Nasca civilization.
  • The Nasca people’s disinclination to make weapons from iron may be related to their pacifist beliefs or their focus on artistic pursuits.
  • The Nasca iron mine is a testament to the ingenuity and artistry of ancient American civilizations.
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Pompeii: A Tale of Two Cities – Decline, Revival, and the Fight to Preserve an Ancient Treasure

by Peter
written by Peter

Pompeii: Decline and Revival of an Ancient City

Pompeii’s Troubled History

Once a thriving Roman city, Pompeii has faced a long period of decline due to neglect, corruption, and natural disasters. The catastrophic eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD buried the city in ash and pumice, preserving it for centuries. However, despite its historical significance, Pompeii has suffered significant deterioration in recent decades.

The Rise of Herculaneum

In contrast to Pompeii’s struggles, its neighboring city, Herculaneum, has experienced a remarkable revival. Thanks to a public-private partnership, the Herculaneum Conservation Project has invested heavily in restoring and preserving the ancient ruins. The project has successfully addressed water damage, stabilized structures, and restored frescoes and artifacts.

Pompeii’s Struggle for Survival

Pompeii, on the other hand, has been plagued by mismanagement and corruption. Emergency funds allocated for restoration have been squandered on unnecessary projects. The site’s lack of qualified staff and inadequate drainage system have exacerbated its decay.

Public Outcry and UNESCO Intervention

The deplorable state of Pompeii has sparked public outrage and international concern. UNESCO has warned that the site may be placed on the World Heritage in Danger list if significant progress is not made in preserving it.

Restoration and Innovation

In response to the crisis, the Italian government has launched the Great Pompeii Project with EU funding. This initiative aims to restore at-risk buildings, improve drainage, and enhance visitor experiences. Advanced technologies, such as X-ray phase-contrast tomography, are being employed to decipher ancient texts and restore damaged artifacts.

Challenges and Future Prospects

Despite these efforts, Pompeii faces ongoing challenges. Constant vigilance and public pressure are crucial to ensure that the restoration work continues. Experts suggest a public-private partnership model similar to Herculaneum’s as a potential solution for long-term sustainability.

The Importance of Pompeii

Pompeii provides a unique glimpse into the daily life and culture of ancient Rome. Its preserved streets, buildings, and artifacts offer invaluable insights into the past. Preserving Pompeii is essential not only for its historical significance but also as a reminder of the importance of heritage conservation and the lessons we can learn from the mistakes of the past.

Pompeii’s Legacy

The rise and fall of Pompeii and the ongoing efforts to revitalize it serve as a poignant reminder of the fragility and resilience of our cultural heritage. By embracing innovation, addressing mismanagement, and fostering partnerships, we can ensure that future generations continue to marvel at this ancient treasure.

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Uncovering the Secrets of an Ancient Egyptian Rest House: A Window into Military History

by Peter
written by Peter

Ancient Egyptian Rest House Sheds Light on Military Campaigns

Discovery of an Ancient Rest House

Archaeologists have uncovered the remains of an ancient “rest house” in the northern Sinai Peninsula that may have housed the troops of Pharaoh Thutmose III over three and a half millennia ago. The discovery was made at the Tel Habwa archaeological site, northeast of Cairo.

Evidence of Thutmose III’s Reign

A hieroglyphic inscription found on the structure indicates that it dates to ancient Egypt’s 18th Dynasty, specifically to the reign of Thutmose III, who ruled between 1479 and 1425 B.C.E. The building’s architectural layout, including two halls supported by limestone columns and a number of connecting rooms, suggests that it was used as a royal rest house.

Strategic Location on the Horus Road

The rest house is located near the beginning of the “Horus Road,” an ancient Egyptian path that stretched across the Sinai Peninsula and contained numerous military structures. This strategic location suggests that the building was used by Thutmose III’s armies during one of his campaigns to expand the Egyptian empire eastward.

Artifacts and Architectural Features

Researchers also found stone thresholds from the building’s entrances and a surrounding wall with an east-facing main gate, indicating that the rest house was later fortified. Artifacts discovered outside of the building, such as pottery and items bearing Thutmose’s name, helped researchers determine its age.

Significance for Understanding Military History

The discovery of the rest house is considered pivotal for shedding light on Egypt’s military history, particularly in the Sinai region during the New Kingdom era. It provides rare evidence of the logistical challenges faced by ancient Egyptian armies on their campaigns.

Later Use as a Cemetery

After the New Kingdom era, the rest house was used as a cemetery. Archaeologists discovered vessels used to bury children between the 21st and 25th Dynasties. A small ceramic plaque discovered at the site bears the name of Amasis, a 26th Dynasty pharaoh who ruled from 570 to 526 B.C.E., indicating the site’s continued use over several centuries.

Historical Context: The New Kingdom Period

The New Kingdom period, which began around 1550 B.C.E., was a time of stability and prosperity for ancient Egypt. It spanned the 18th, 19th and 20th Dynasties and witnessed significant military expansion under Thutmose III and other pharaohs.

Importance of Archaeological Discoveries

Archaeological discoveries like the rest house at Tel Habwa provide valuable insights into the daily lives, military strategies, and cultural practices of ancient civilizations. They help us to better understand the complex history of human societies and the connections between different cultures and time periods.

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Archaeological Art

Terracotta Treasures: Uncovering History in Ancient Myra

by Kim
written by Kim

Terracotta Treasures Unearthed in Ancient Myra: A Journey into History

Discovery of Terracotta Figurines

Turkish archaeologists have made an extraordinary discovery at the ancient town of Myra, uncovering over 50 terracotta figurines dating back to the Hellenistic period (around 323-31 B.C.). These exquisite sculptures, intricately crafted and meticulously painted, offer a glimpse into the artistry and beliefs of an ancient civilization.

The figurines, each standing just a few inches tall, depict a diverse array of subjects, including humans, gods, and animals. Rams, horsemen, women with children, and a boy carrying fruit are among the human figures, while mythic characters such as Leto, Artemis, Apollo, and Heracles represent the divine realm.

Preservation and Significance

Miraculously, some of the figurines still bear traces of the vibrant pigments that once adorned them, revealing shades of red, blue, and pink. This remarkable preservation provides valuable insights into the clothing and customs of ancient Myra.

Nevzat Çevik, the lead archaeologist at Akdeniz University, expressed his astonishment at the discovery, describing it as “an unexpected big surprise.” He believes that the figurines offer a unique opportunity to connect with the ancient people of Myra, as if they had “resurrected and ran through the time tunnel” to the present day.

Excavation and Artifacts

The figurines were discovered during excavations of the town’s Roman-era theater and an older Hellenistic theater located beneath it. In addition to the terracotta figures, the team also unearthed a wealth of other artifacts, including ceramic, bronze, lead, and silver objects, scattered around the Hellenistic theater.

Myra: A Crossroads of Cultures

Myra, strategically situated at the mouth of the Andriacus River on Turkey’s southern coast, flourished as an important Mediterranean port city for centuries. It fell under the control of various regional powers, including the Persians, Lycians, and Romans.

The city’s rich history is evident in its impressive Roman theater, built in the third century A.D., and its iconic rock-cut tombs, carved into the hillsides between the fifth and third centuries B.C. These elaborate tombs, often resembling wooden houses and shrines, are a testament to the architectural prowess of ancient Myra.

Excavations and Future Plans

Excavations at Myra have been ongoing for over a decade, shedding light on the city’s past. This summer, project coordinators brought a team of researchers and workers to the site in Antalya’s Demre district, leading to the discovery of the terracotta figurines.

The team continues to piece together remnants of additional figurines, with plans to share them with the Museum of Lycian Civilizations in Demre for public display. These terracotta treasures will undoubtedly enhance our understanding of ancient Myra and the broader history of Anatolian archaeology.

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